The Spring Equinox approaches (at least, at time of writing; some weeks have passed since then) – and with it, the onset of the War Season of the archaic Indo-Europeans.

Whether the Quinquatrus and Tubilustrium of the Romans, situated within their Month of Mars (mensis Martius – whence our modern name for it: ‘March’); the enigmatic Hreðmonað (‘Rhed-monath’ … or ‘Redmonað’, as it actually appears upon the pages of the 12th century Thorney Computus manuscript – beneath the helpful annotation, ‘Mar.’, to indicate Martius / March) of the Anglo-Saxons; or the array of Rites and Observances (most prominently the relevant NavRatri (‘Nine Nights [of the Goddess]’) with its associated Astra Puja) occurrent within the Lunar Month of Chaitra (चैत्र – and generally falling around late March and early-mid April) for the Hindus … we are blessed to observe the same, shared, and evidently incredibly archaic Indo-European understandings. Carried forward and refracted out across an immense span of both time and physical distance.

Now one might, perhaps, be forgiven for presuming that these were simply ‘parallel evolutions’ and effectively independently arrived at. After all, if one thinks about it, then there is a certain ‘freestanding’ logic to such an occurrence as having one’s War Rites with which the season of Campaigning (and/or Raiding) is to be commenced … at about the point of the year wherein the temperature is becoming warmer (and, one assumes, subject to local climactic / meteorological variations, the weather as well is more amenable toward marching large bodies of men about the place) and therefore one is more able to make war in the first instance.

Yet we can be fairly sure that that has not proven the case via the suite of strong concordancies to be observed between several of the relevant understandings in question.

For our effort here tonight, we shall seek to illuminate the Roman observance of the Quinquatria (and yes, yes I am aware that the illustration I have chosen to use with this piece is, strictly speaking, of Athena – albeit, of an 1851 and German-sculpted vintage) . And do so in direct relation to the pertinent Vedic operations and ‘conceptual’ theology. Subsequent installments to the series shall ‘zoom in’ and examine the more particular theological elements both expressly – as well as implicitly – encountered via the Roman exemplar.

So, let us introduce this – via the major source which we have for its elucidation, this being the Fasti of Ovid [III 809-848, and in the Kline translation]:

“After a one day interval, the Rites of Minerva are performed,
Which take their name from the sequence of five days.

The first day is bloodless, and sword fights are unlawful,
Because Minerva was born on that very day.

The next four are celebrated with gladiatorial shows,
The warlike Goddess delights in naked swords.

Pray now you boys and tender girls to Pallas:
He who can truly please Pallas, is learned.

Pleasing Pallas let girls learn to card wool,
And how to unwind the full distaff.

She shows how to draw the shuttle through the firm
Warp, and close up loose threads with the comb.

Worship Her, you who remove stains from damaged clothes,
Worship Her, you who ready bronze cauldrons for fleeces.

If Pallas frowns, no one could make good shoes,
Even if he were more skilled than Tychius:

And even if he were cleverer with his hands
Than Epeus once was, he’ll be useless if Pallas is angry.

You too who drive away ills with Apollo’s art,
Bring a few gifts of your own for the Goddess:

And don’t scorn Her, you schoolmasters, a tribe
So often cheated of its pay: She attracts new pupils:

Nor you engravers, and painters with encaustics,
Nor you who carve the stone with a skillful hand.

She’s the Goddess of a thousand things: and Song for sure:
If I’m worthy may She be a Friend to my endeavours.

Where the Caelian Hill slopes down to the plain,
At the point where the street’s almost, but not quite, level,
You can see the little shrine of Minerva Capta,
Which the Goddess first occupied on Her Birthday.

The source of the name is doubtful: we speak of
‘Capital’ ingenuity: the Goddess is Herself Ingenious.

Or is it because, motherless, She leapt, with a shield
From the crown of Her Father’s Head (caput)?

Or because She came to us as a ‘captive’ from the conquest
Of Falerii? This, an ancient inscription claims.

Or because Her Law ordains ‘capital’ punishment
For receiving things stolen from that place?

By whatever logic Your Title’s derived, Pallas,
Shield our leaders with Your Aegis forever.”

Now, straightaway we are greeted with something deserving of our commentary.

The Rites are those of Minerva – and I shall elaborate upon just why that is significant if we are to situate things in their comparative Indo-European context.

First up, it’s because this is a Goddess. A War Goddess, a Victory Goddess.

Why does that resonate?

Because the ‘fulcrum’ figure for each of Chaitra NavRatri and for the Hredmonath of the pre-Christian English Germanics are, likewise, Goddess-oriented observances.

As applies the latter, here’s Bede –

“Rhed-monath a dea illorum Rheda, cui in illo sacrificabant, nominatur”
[De Temporum Ratione XV – De Mensibus Anglorum; note that for some reason ‘Deo’ rather than ‘Dea’ crops up in a few presentations]

What does this mean?

Per the Wallis translation:

“Hrethmonath is named for their goddess Hretha, to whom they sacrificed at this time.”

I should, perhaps, note that there’s a bit of … back-and-forth about the precise formulation for the actual Anglo-Saxon theonymic etc. that underpins the Latin – as you can see, “Hretha” has been favoured here by Wallis, but one will also encounter “Hreða” (functionally basically coterminous with “Hretha”), “Hreda” (based on speculation that the ð which turns up in at least one occurrence in Latin manuscript, is intended to represent a “d” rather than that “th” style sound more usually understood via “ð”), and even some efforts which go for a straight “R-” sound rather than an “Hr-” for the start. We intend to delve into this in due course when it comes to our reconstructive work for the Anglo-Saxon observance as the next installment to this series. As theonyms, after all, can prove vitally important in understanding the nature of the deific and/or how They were to be properly engaged with. And, as applies a situation such as this wherein we basically only have the theonymic(ish), the fact that a Goddess is referred to via such, and the calendrical placement (March) – well, this can prove rather vital in making much more out of it than that which has come down to us via the surface. But I digress.

For now, it ought be enough to note that whatever Her Name most properly was – the range of associations are quite comfortably plausibly those of a War Goddess. And thus, it seems, the Germanic March sacrifices in question ought prove those undertaken for victory in warfare – perhaps the “sigrblót” attested by Sturluson in his Ynglinga Saga as occurring amidst ‘Summer’ [“sumri”] was a slight deferment of the same observance; the operation occurring a few weeks later (the Old Icelandic calendar had ‘Sumar’ commencing in mid-April) assumedly due to the colder overall conditions amidst the demesnes of those more northerly Germanic groups and thus a later potential (as Lindow puts it in his ‘Norse Mythology’) “departure of ships on raiding (and, more mundanely, trading) voyages” with which it should “coincide”.

As applies the Hindu correlate observance(s) for all of this … we have written in our usual degrees of depth and digression-pile-up upon these elsewhere, and so shall not seek to directly repeat it all herein. Instead, to introduce the ‘core’ elements for a perhaps less-than-totally-familiar audience (whilst also indulging my penchant for over-complexifying via new research accidentally occurrent through the process) – the major Goddess-oriented undertaking for us here is the ‘Chaitra’ NavRatri (also known as ‘Vasanta NavRatri’ – i.e. ‘Spring NavRatri’, in distinguishment from the ‘Sharada Navratri’ – ‘Autumn NavRatri’ conducted in the month of Ashwini / Āśvin around September/October). Said Goddess being, of course, both the panoply of Forms which is the NavaDurga Processional (i.e. the progression from Devi’s (re-)appearance as ShailaPutri (Śailaputrī) through to Her ultimate transcendency as Siddhidatri (Siddhidātrī) ) or other local/regional variations … but also, rather pointedly, Chandika (Caṇḍikā) – i.e. Durga (Durgā) Herself : the Hindu War Goddess par excellence. (Not, of course, that the Hindu Pantheon has any shortage nor singular station of War Goddesses – quite the contrary, in fact!)

Now, at this point we ought also make mention of the fact that whilst the Chaitra NavRatri is the original and more archaic NavaRatri of the Hindu devotional calendar – it has been substantially overshadowed in the popular perception (and, to be sure, even in scriptural sources to some degree) by the later (both in the year and in mytho-historical terms of first occurrence) Sharada (Autumnal) Navratri occurrent in Asvini. Much of the extant material that we have for the description of relevant army- and ruler- blessing and empowerment within a Navarātra context, is in fact directly attested in relation to the Autumnal observance. Although we are certainly not short upon primary-source attestations for the significance of Chaitra as a ‘war month’ (and therefore demanding of particular, specialized ritual operations in order to ensure victorious success – and protection – within same) – SBr II 1 2 13-17 & Tait. Br. I 1 2 4-6 both speak to this very directly, whilst various sources including the Manusmriti (VII 182) and the Arthashastra (IX I 37-41) attest the correlation in rather more overtly ‘historical’ fashion (albeit also amidst other occasions in the year – perhaps due to climatological and other differences of physical geography, the Indo-Aryan appears to have had a rather broader suite of potential ‘campaign / warfare / raiding periods’ to choose from than his European cousins as time goes on).

Interestingly, both Chaitra and Sharada Navaratri observances culminate with relation to Lord Rama – in the case of the Spring occasion, with His Birth upon Ram Navami upon the Ninth (of Nine) days; and as applies the Autumnal … well, the official (mythic) foundation for this observance is Lord Rama’s successful carrying out of an ‘Akālabodhana’ (‘Out-of- (‘A-‘) Time- (‘-Kāla-‘) Awakening (‘Bodhana’)’) of the War Goddess in order to be victorious in His imminent campaign against the demon-ruled empire of Ravana.

The major ‘mythic foundation’ for Chaitra Navratri also features a regal figure propitiating the Devi in order to secure (through the impending utilization of armed force) the restoration to him of a most precious element usurped and stolen. In that case, it is the human king Surath – who had lost his mighty realm through twin defeats; one, upon the battlefield against foes from without … the other, due to treachery from within (that is to say – he was deposed by his own perfidious officials, who had taken advantage of the situation to corruptly enrich themselves from the nation’s treasury in the process).

The king successfully earns the favour of the Devi through his pious resolve and resolute undertakings as to Her Worship, with the Goddess Caṇḍikā appearing in order that he might choose a boon. To quote from the Devadatta Kali translation of the Devi Mahatmyam – he selects (inter alia) “[…] his own kingdom here, to be reclaimed by force from his enemies’ control.” [XIII 17]

Quoth the Devi in beneficent Reply:

“In a few days, O king, you will reclaim your own kingdom.
When your enemies are slain, thenceforth it will assuredly be yours.”
[XIII 20-21, Devadatta Kali translation]

Sīc Trānsit Dōna Devī.

(And yes, yes I’m aware that the Latin translation would be ‘Dīvae’)

We should additionally make mention of the mythic detailing at Skanda Purana V I 34 67-68 for the eponymous (male) War God, Skanda, as having likewise been ‘congealed’ on the first through to sixth days of the Shukla (Bright) fortnight of Chaitra … that is to say, the first two thirds of Chaitra NavRatri. Accompanied by His Retinue-Host of Matrikas, Lord Skanda, that great Son of Shiva then proceeds to ride forth in retribution and valorous reconquest against the demon warlord Tarakasura and his forces (Shiva’s directive, per the Tagare translation for line 79 being that He should “exterminate[ them] entirely”) – doing so bearing theonymic designations such as ‘Great Army’ (MahaSena – ibid. line 78), ‘Divine Army’ (ibid., line 85), as well as the perhaps more anticipated titles for leadership of the army (Senani & DevaSenaPati – both ibid., line 74).

The fact that the Night of SkandaMata [‘Mother of Skanda’] is the Fifth of the Nine in the context of the NavaDurga Processional of NavRatri should seem uncoincidental – the penultimate ‘phase’ for this congealment of Skanda, the ‘detailing / adornment’ (‘alaṅkṛta’) occurs upon this date (the fifth – panchami), with the next day (sasthi – ‘sixth’) being His ‘Launching’ (‘Samutthita’ – more directly ‘Rising Up’); which just so happens to correlate with the Night of Katyayani (Durga, in the sense of Mahishasura Mardini, Herself) … Katyayani, per another Skanda Purana accounting (VI 1 120) in fact Herself being ‘congealed’ (‘Samagata’ – ‘arrive’, but also ‘conjoin/unite’) of the Wrath of the Heavens as ‘catalyzed’ via the essence-tial contribution of Her Son, Kartikeya (Skanda), and His Rage (‘Kopa’ – War-Fury) via ‘Vak’s Gate’ (Vaktradvāra – i.e. the Mouth), with just such a purpose of leading the Divine Army to war against a demon lord (the aforementioned Mahishasura) and his assembled hosts.

The inclusion of, apparently, human groups like the Śakas (‘Scythians’) and Yavanas (‘Ionians’ – Greeks) in amidst said Divine Army having arrived as emanants of Her via the Mouth and Her (Fiery- / Furnace- ?) Laugh (Hasantī would overtly render as the latter but can also definitely refer to the former) [Skanda Purana VI 1 120 38-39], perhaps proving a resonance for the occurrence at the same place in the myth within a different iteration for the Skanda Purana (III 68 1, Yokochi translation) of the Devi as Kaushiki first emanating and then ’emplacing’ a range of (Warrior) Goddess-Forms amidst particular human nations likewise (the Yavanas have Vayasi – a Crow(headed) Goddess, aptly enough). Albeit, with my supposition viz. a ‘fire-housing’ Mouth (in which case, the ‘Laughing’ designated via the other meaning for Hasantī there should refer to the loud crackling roars of the Offering Flames) … well, perhaps the notion of a ‘ready-made Army’ coming forth through the Fire-Altar is just as one ought to infer of it.

Certainly, to speak of Fire-Altars in this way – one is perhaps reminded of the detailing at Brahmanda Purana II 24 91, wherein one apparently encounters the planet Mars as the Son of Vikeshi and Agni (Rudra and Agni being two ‘facings’ of the same deific, other texts having the Śarva (‘Injurer’, ‘Archer’) Form of Rudra as the Father; with Vikeśī being canonically understood as Earth – although given the ‘Comet-like-Hair’ descriptor, perhaps ‘Smoke’ might also spring to mind; ). Earth and Fire are, after all, the major constituent components for, of course, the Vedic Fire Altar (and c.f. the various SBr etc. hailings for Aditi(-Vak) in this regard – most particularly in conjoint with Agni). The same Pauranika section – Brahmanda Purana II 24 – also explicitly presents Mars (Aṅgāraka – ‘Glowing Like Coals/Embers’) as being Skanda. (The very archaic Kāṭhaka Brāhmaṇa, for which we are indebted to S. Sharma for translating and presenting the relevant section thereof, the Graheṣṭi Brāhmaṇa, has Mars as Agni – not least in terms of the ‘Kumara’ hailing for Agni(-Rudra) in-use for Skanda … we would suggest a case of ‘Like Father, Like Son’ : a recurrent situation for Skanda, as one can see with His Matrika retinue, for instance, as well).

With regard to Lord Skanda – Kartikeya – we would also observe that the Pleiades (known in Hindu terms as the Krittikas (Kṛttikā) – the ‘Cutters’; and understood to be Seven, later Six female figures) are supposed to have had their rising broadly commensurate with the Spring (Vernal) Equinox during Bronze Age antiquity. Said Equinox is basically ‘on’ (or, strictly speaking, immediately after by a day or so) the Quinquatria – the 20th of March, relative to the 19th. While the ongoing movements of the Night’s Sky over the millennia have resulted in a situation of the heliacal risings of constellations moving in relation to the terrestrial dates to which they were once (observationally) affixed … the archaic status of various Indo-European traditions have, nevertheless, it would seem often ‘preserved’ things for us most admirably. If one knows how to look.

Hence, in this instance – Skanda’s mythology features rather prominently the constellation in question. The Krttikas – Pleiades – are presented as His (Six) Mothers; hence both His Name (Kartikeya – of the Krttikas), and the Six Faces with which He is frequently iconographically portrayed. To be sure, there’s also an array of further mythic detailing (some of which goes in a bit of a different direction) in relation to Him – and also, the situation of Agni in relation to Svaha (Herself linked to the Six Pleiades – at least in terms of ‘appearance’) springs additionally to mind. But it is not our purpose to contemplate these mat(t)ers herein. Instead, we shall simply note that a War God arrives at the time of year when one would anticipate a War God to appear (and, indeed, actively seek for such – given the Campaign Season about to ensue), and that this should seem to coincide with the prominence for the constellation identified with His Mothers; said prominence being also in relation to the Sun.

Finally – for now – as applies those ‘mythic foundations’ for Chaitra NavRatri … we would make brief mention for the occurrence recounted at XII 8 of the Devi Bhagavata Purana – itself a re-stating of a prominent episode found within the Kena Upanishad. The effective essence in either case being that: i) the victory of the Gods in major warfare against Demons is attributable to the approval (and consequent empowerment) of the Devi , ii) the great might of Indra (in especial regard to this, one presumes) is, likewise, due to Her Grace [something rather ‘subtly’ familiar from elsewhere – consider Vak’s essential contribution toward Indra’s victory over Vrtra … or Athena’s in relation to Herakles & Iolaus contra the Hydra; perhaps Evelyn-White’s rendering for ‘βουλῇσιν’ as the plan[s] of Athena (The ‘Plunderer’, per Heumann’s choice for for ‘ἀγελείης’) at Theogony 318 should resonate with something Deepa that we shall be discussing in due course ].

To add slightly more depth to the explication (without turning this into yet another entire (A)Arti-cle) – the Devi appears as Uma Haimavati (Uma, Shiva’s Consort, Daughter of Himalaya) in the Kena occurrence; and is (also) the Absolute (the in-universe expression / expressor thereof) . The Gods having reportedly become a bit hubristic following Their recent victory over the A’Suras, are reminded through this episode of even Their dependence upon this higher power for triumph and potency. And therefore, correspondingly (as the Devi Bhagavata Purana account makes rather more overt), that in order to triumph … one must seek the favour of the Devi.

To perhaps rephrase this in terms which might seem a little less ‘sectarian’ to an external audience – the Devi is Brahman, the Absolute. Rta is Brahman, Brahman is Rta – that is to say, Cosmic Order / Divine Law is the Absolute, the Absolute is … well, you get the idea. Rta also works out in comparative IE theological / cosmological terms as, effectively, ‘Fate’ – Örlög (‘Supernal Law’, should we go via its evident etymology) in Old Norse, we would say. And hence, just as we have Uma Haimavati here – well, so too does Odin’s Wife, Frigg, find attestation (in the Lokasenna – verse 29) as having the great linkage viz. Örlög. And yes, yes this very definitely shall become pertinent as applies the actual War Rites component to this series in due course ! You’ll see that which I mean.

Now, of course, the notion that one Wins via having ‘Fate’ (or, if you prefer, ‘Luck’, perhaps …) upon one’s side makes an eminent amount of sense. Doubly so when one recollects Her occasional penchant for turning up ‘in person’ (in either sense to that term … ) in order to sort things out Personally. No World Beyond Her Rule – No Enemy Beyond Her Wrath.

But let us let the scripture speak for herself (at least, in translation) – beginning with the rather pointed element of the date …

“Then on the ninth lunar day of the month of Caitra when the Sun entered the meridian, suddenly there appeared in that place a Great Mass of Light as was seen before. Indra saw, then, within that Mass of Light, a Virgin Form in full youth. The lustre from Her body was like that of ten million Rising Suns; and the colour was rosy red like a full-blown Javā flower. […]”
[XII 8 51-52, Vijñanananda translation]

“Know, verily, that It is I that engage Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra, the causes of the several works of creation, preservation and destruction of this universe (they are performing their functions by My Command). Through the terror from Me the wind blows; through my terror, the Sun moves in the sky; through My terror, Indra, Agni, and Yama do their respective duties. I am the Best and Superior to all. All fear Me. Through My Grace you have obtained victory in the battle. Know, verily, that it is I that make you all dance like inert wooden dolls as My mere instruments. […]
[XII 8 77-79, Vijñanananda translation]

As we had said – the Goddess is / controls Fate. And what warrior can succeed without Her upon his side ? As I say – we shall be exploring a rather remarkable and more broadly pervasive Indo-European situation as applies Fate in relation to these Spring Equinox-oriented War Rites and Warfare more generally in due course.

We can also read things more simply and more directly. AV-S VI 38 (entitled, per Griffith, as “A Prayer for Surpassing Strength & Energy”) calls upon Aditi to empower a man (implicitly, a warrior) – doing so with repeated reference to Her as the Mother of Indra.

We know that the Kingship oriented elements of the archaic Indo-Aryans often appear to have been oriented around just such an (adoptive-)Mother linkage for the human ruler in question (ref., for instance, AV-S III 8 2; SBr V 5 2 8-10; etc. … and, of course, the Rabatak Inscription, for a broader Indo-Iranic comparanda which should seem to reinforce same).

As Dr Bihani Sarkar had observed – there is quite the coterminity for the ‘Kingship’ and ‘War-Rites’ focal-points to be found within the Sharada NavRatri of old. But more upon all of that, perhaps, some other time.

Our point is quite simple – the mythic ‘templating’ is readily there for the Hindu correlate to the Quinquatria, to the Hreðmonað, etc. … with loka-lization oriented around this particular (rough) span of dating running within mid-late March through to early-mid April.

And to speak – but briefly – as to the ‘Month’ side of things … the distinctive nomenclature for the relevant months which house these Operations may be noteworthy.

Insofar as whilst ‘Rheda-Monath’ has the name for the Goddess quite overtly, when it comes to ‘mensis Martius’ we have the male Mars seemingly titular and ‘obscuring’ the Minerva saliency (although as applies the Salii – well, we may address these in due course) … something rather more curious when one considers that information found on the ‘Menologia Rustica’ [‘Rustic Calendars’] inscriptions tends to have Minerva identified as the “Tutela” [‘Tutelary’ – the One Who Looks After] for the month of question. Meanwhile, Chaitra derives its name from the Chitra [‘Brilliant’] Nakshatra (Which is, unsurprisingly, correlated to the NavaGraha [‘planet’ isn’t quite an accurate translation – ‘Grabber’ is cognate with ‘Graha’, so ‘Influencer’; of which there are Nine] Mangala / Mars), and we would also make brief mention at this point for the Athenian month of Elaphebolion which is similarly situated (viz. March/April) and so named in honour for Artemis Elaphebolos (the ‘Deer-Shooting’) for reasons that shall become apparent in due course.

The fact that we have several – evidently independently internally-understood – designations for the period (and Goddess(es)) in question is quite vital. For it helps us to establish that the whole thing – at least as applies the ‘European’ side to the ‘Indo-European’ spectrum – has NOT simply resulted from direct translation / calquing / assimilation / transposition etc. ‘laterally’ between the cultures. But rather, is a case of each ‘carrying forward’ their own particular and culturally-specific recognizance for the archaic (Proto-)Indo-European essence in question. This is particularly valuable as applies, for instance, that recounting of Bede – wherein he has often come in for that quite peculiar insistence of having somehow ‘made up’ a Goddess (and therefore, one assumes, also the corresponding observance / month-named-for/in-relation-to-such).

It may also prove worth noting that in two of these cultures – the (more archaic) Roman and the Hindu, the Month in question is (or, in the case of the Romans, was – Scullard observes it had been bypassed perhaps by the mid-2nd century B.C.) the start of the calendar and therefore Year. Clearly, these were groups which had good reason for situating their ‘War Season’ commencement month as the official start to their annum.

But let us return to the Divinities at the center of these observances.

As ever – in more than one sense as to the term !